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Labour Migration and Remittances in Nepal
The study is based on three case studies in India, Pakistan, and Nepal and in the context of Nepal, presents the findings related to a study conducted in the far-western and mid-western development regions of Nepal. It starts with an overview of the demography and development of the mountain regions, discusses aspects of labour migration and remittances, and finally presents the impact of labour migration and recommendations for practitioners and the government. On remittances, it discusses remitting procedures and charges, reliance on remittance, proportion of income remitted, and use of remittances. The report also sheds light on the causes and forms of migration, the socio-economic condition of migrants and their access to labour migration. Given the indefinite results regarding the impact of labour migration on the social, economic, and gender inequality, and community cohesion, the author indicates the need for further research on this area. -
Population Mobility and Spread of HIV across the Indo-Nepal Border
The article reviews information on the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS and behavioural networking to examine the role of population mobility in spreading HIV across the Indo-Nepal border. Documents were collected through a systematic search of electronic databases and web-based information resources, and the review focuses on studies about types of the virus, prevalence of HIV, and sexual and injecting networking. HIV1 (subtype C) and HIV-2 were identified in Nepal. The prevalence of HIV was higher among male labour migrants and female sex workers (FSWs) who returned from India, especially from Mumbai, than in similar non-migrant groups. In the early 2000s, about 6-10% of Mumbai returnee men, compared to up to 4% of India returnee men and up to 3% of non-migrant men in the far-west Nepal, were identified with HIV. Likewise, when the prevalence of HIV among sex workers in Kathmandu was found to be 17% in 1999-2000, up to 44% of India returnee and 73% of Mumbai returnee FSWs were identified with the virus. These data are, however, based on small samples with questionable representativeness of the target populations and need to be interpreted cautiously. They also generate a biased impression that HIV was coming into Nepal from India. Recently, the possibility of a two-way flow of HIV across the Indo-Nepal border through injecting and sexual networking have been indicated by serological and behavioural data from a south-eastern cluster of Nepal and a north-eastern district of India. Although similar behavioural networks exist along other segments of the border, serological data are unavailable to assess whether and how extensively this phenomenon has caused the spread of HIV. Collaborative research and interventions covering both sides of the border are desirable to fully understand and address the prospect of HIV epidemics associated with cross-border population mixing. -
Paper Walls are Easier to Tear Down: Passport Costs and Legal Barriers to Emigration
Increased attention to the development potential of international migration has led to calls for greater global cooperation and for industrial countries to consider temporary worker programs and other options for increasing the number of immigrants admitted. But less attention has been devoted to policies that migrant-sending countries pursue that impact on the ability of people to emigrate under the existing system. This paper documents the existence and impact of two such policies: passport costs and legal restrictions on emigration. -
Toiling at Homes: A Study of the Domestic Labour in Nepal
The study provides an overview on the situation of domestic labour in Nepal with a focus on bonded labour and other worse forms of labour. Based on interviews with 292 domestic labourers of the total 1969 enumerated households, this study presents the situation of domestic labourers in the three municipalities of Kathmandu, Morang, and Banke districts. The report attempts to understand the extent of the problem and hence formulate relevant policies to protect domestic workers from exploitative relationships -
The World Upside-Down: Nepalese Migrants in Northern India
The article is centred on the experiences of high-caste Nepali migrant workers in India, while briefly describing their migratory processes. It particularly focuses on migrants in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, in towns such as Pithoragarh, Mussoorie, Dehradun, Kedarnath, Pauri Garhwal, and Almora. It is based primarily on 94 in-depth interviews with high-caste men from mid-western and far-western development regions of Nepal and observations made on migrant worker’s behaviour in the city and their living conditions in India. It depicts how migrants’ choice of destination is shaped by their ambitions and constraints at home; they migrate to Indian towns due to shortage of food, money, and employment at home. With family or social networks facilitating their migration, the article illustrates how migrants view temporary migration to India as a normal part of their lives. It describes this trend of ‘coming and going as a way of life’ for the migrant workers. This movement also symbolises a ‘rite of passage’ for many young boys who leave their villages in order to undertake family responsibilities as adults. The author describes the alienating experience that migrants undergo in the crowded, noisy, and dirty urban spaces of India. Here, Nepali migrants commonly work as porters and take little pride in their jobs, which are strenuous, poorly paid and socially undervalued and survive in the Indian labour market by taking up jobs that locals would not want to do. As a result, the author notes the process through which migrant workers internalise their inferior status. He describes India as a place where high-caste Nepali men learn about exploitation, modesty and dishonour, an experience that stands in stark contrast to their lives back in the villages. The article also explores ways in which migrant workers cope with these adversities such as through the adoption of new names that allows migrants to identify themselves as farmers and disassociate themselves as workers. -
Livelihood Strategies in a Marginal Area of Nepal (Far West Nepal) with an Emphasis on Labour Migration to India
Based on research conducted in Bajhang and Bajura districts in far western Nepal in 1998, this paper explores Nepali labour migration to India. More specifically, it considers Nepali migrants who work as watchmen in Delhi and discusses the complex process of their migration and the importance of networks in securing employment and maintaining livelihoods in Delhi. The paper notes that financial self-help associations established by migrants to ensure financial security and support families in Nepal operate in two forms: chits and societies. Although these associations are dominated by men, women are also gradually establishing similar associations. In addition, the authors also analyse the opportunities and constraints of migration, opening up avenues for further research such as the effects of remittances in marginal areas, utilisation of the Indian education and healthcare facilities, breakdown of traditional institutions such as the caste system, effects of separation from families, the existing bad living and working conditions of Nepalis in Delhi, etc. In conclusion, the authors call for the strengthening of and effective implementation of measures that have already been agreed upon by the government of the two countries. Further, they also stress the need for increased attention and awareness on the issues that confront undocumented labour migrants from Nepal to India. -
Remittance Income in Nepal: Need for Economic Development
The article assesses the role of remittances in the national economy and demonstrates the tremendous impact of the flow of foreign earnings on Nepal’s economic development. With 107 countries now opened up for foreign employment, remittance flow has exceeded foreign direct investment in Nepal. Between 1991 and 2005, the contribution of remittances to the GDP has increased drastically, creating a surplus in the balance of payments. The author highlights remittance transfers in Nepal as one of the best in the region, as migrants still remit through informal channels but transfers between commercial banks and transaction companies can be made at a low cost. The paper also points out the negative effects of labour migration on the socio-economic conditions at the origin, such as barren land, low agricultural productivity, separation of family, growing rate of communicable diseases among migrants and the migrants’ tendency to settle in foreign countries. Given the harm caused to the domestic economy by the absence of an economically active labour force, the author indicates the need for migrant workers to return to their country and utilise their skilled knowledge, savings, and work experiences in the productive areas that are prioritised in the national development plans. -
Feminisation of Nepali Migration to India
Globalisation, feminisation, trafficking and migration either documented or undocumented evolved as intertwined issues. The main objective of this study is to discuss feminisation, trafficking and illegal female Nepali migration to India in general and West Bengal, a State of India, in particular. Census records show that absolute volume of documented female Nepali migrants is increasing for India and declining for West Bengal, and proportion of female to male is increasing on the whole. Recent literature highlights increasing illegal female migration along the path of open border and trafficking. The contributing factors to trafficking involve deep rooted process of gender discrimination, lack of female education, ignorance of rural folk, poverty, unemployment, lack of economic opportunities, globalisation of the economy, feminisation of poverty and migration, woman’s lack of empowerment. A strong social movement, public awareness, a fight against exploitation, injustice and drive against misuse of Indo-Nepal open border may be the solution . -
Addressing the Needs of Nepalese Migrant Workers in Nepal and in Delhi, India
International labor migration is an increasingly important livelihood strategy in Nepal. There is little documentation of the movements of migrant workers or of their remittances. The present article examines two projects that address these migrants’ needs in their home country and in one destination. The first project is a Nepal-wide radio program based in Kathmandu that provides information on migration issues. The second is a community outreach project based in Delhi, India, focusing on education of migrants. -
Causes and Impact of Migration: A Sociological Study of Emigration from Kandebash, Baglung, Nepal
This article looks at voluntary emigration from Kandebash VDC of Baglung district, Nepal, to India and other countries and the causes and long-term impact of such mobility at the local level. The study finds how the emigration of male members has resulted in the decline of agricultural production, whereas access to remittances has increased the dependence of households on market goods. The author attributes migration mainly to unemployment, food deficiency, increased expenditure, easy availability of unskilled work and cash payment and also considers ‘social factors’ such as the ‘bright lights of the city’ and talks of adventures abroad as influencing their decision to migrate. With regards to the impact of migration, the article notes that while families use remittances for household expenses and food consumption, the village economy has remained stagnant with no signs of development. Further, the workload of women has increased in the absence of able-bodied male labourers. The author argues that emigration could be problematic in the long run as it decreases the availability of labour at the origin and hinders local development. -
Migrants in Flight: Conflict-Induced Internal Displacement of Nepalis in Northeast India
The Nepalis from the neighbouring kingdom of Nepal, who have been migrating to Northeast India since the colonial times have long integrated into the multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society of the region. Settled in almost all the states of the region they have, in recent times, been frequently identified as foreigners as their growing numbers have caused worry in a backward region of India, as well as the seemingly deliberate attempts of the ethnic movements to loosely define the term 'foreigner'. They have suffered large-scale evictions and internal displacement. This paper looks at the conflict-induced displacement of the Nepalis in Northeast India. -
Relative Deprivation and Migration in an Agricultural Setting of Nepal
The paper assesses the relative deprivation theory of migration in the setting of the Chitwan Valley by using data from the Chitwan Valley Family Study, 1996. The author begins with a presupposition that individuals with relatively less landholdings are more likely to out-migrate, deprivation being conceptualised in terms of access to or ownership of cultivated land (khet). Results are consistent with the relative deprivation theory. In terms of access to land, the author notes that in an agricultural economy like Nepal, various aspects of livelihood and the rising land pressure must also be taken into account. With these findings, the article highlights the importance of capital investments in organising migration, which leaves potentially ‘deprived’ households from seizing the benefits of migration. -
HIV Prevalence among Nepalese Migrant Workers Working in Nepal and Indian Cities
Several studies have shown an association between mobility and HIV infection. In this study, we examined the prevalence of HIV infection among migrant wormigrant workers working in Nepal and Indian cities. A representative sample of 316 migrant men (210 internal migrants and 106 external migrants) were interviewed and tested for HIV infection during September 2001 to June 2003. HIV prevalence among migrants within Nepal was 2.3% as compared to 8.5% among migrants to India. 60% of migrants within Nepal and 85% of migrants to India have visited female sex workers. 75% of migrants within Nepal used condom while visiting female sex workers in comparision to only 10% of migrants to India. We also found limited access to HIV information service for migrant workers to India as compared to migrants within Nepal. Considering the high HIV prevalence and risky behaviours regarding HIV/AIDS among external migrants as compared to internal migrants, comprehensive HIV prevention programme is necessary for migrant workers going to work in India before they migrate. -
Migrants' Risky Sexual Behaviours in India and at Home in Far Western Nepal
This paper examines Nepali migrants’ vulnerability to HIV/sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and their possible role in causing the epidemic in far western Nepal. From August to October 2000, six focus group discussions among 53 returned migrants from India, mainly from Mumbai. Data were analysed by interpretative thematic analysis were conducted. Migrants commonly had multiple sexual encounters, changed partners, and used condoms infrequently both in India and at home. Several factors influenced them to practice high-risk sexual behaviours. In India, these included peer norms and pressures, cheaper sex, lack of family restraint, drinking alcohol, and low perceived vulnerability to HIV/STIs. In Nepal, these factors included the migrants’ new status, frequent local festivals, and low perceived vulnerability to HIV/STIs. Participants displayed substantial deficits in their knowledge of HIV/STIs. This study revealed Nepali migrants’ high-risk sexual behaviours both abroad and at home. Understanding these realities will assist in the development of culturally appropriate HIV/STI interventions necessary to halt the spread of HIV/STIs in Nepal. -
Armed Conflict and Migration: A Threat for Development and Peace
This paper presents an argument on; what is the ground for the present armed conflict in Nepal and why has it been a problem though the history of the conflict is not that longer compared to other armed conflicts around the world? As a result of the conflict, internal as well as international migration is taking place. The forced movement of people has caused obstacles for a development process in the country. At the moment, most of the development projects are at halt which is definitely an obstacle for healthy social transformation and thereby peace building. This is one of the hottest experiences of Nepalese society at the moment. The paper looks at the Maoist movement and emergence of conflict as a consequence of the then “system failure”. Finally, the paper concludes that the conflict is causing forced migration and has been a barrier for development and peace in Nepal. -
Mumbai Disease in Far-western Nepal: HIV Infection and Syphilis among Male Migrant-returnees and Non-migrants
The paper measures the seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and syphilis, and to assess the behavioural risk factors for these infections among migrant-returnees and non-migrants in far western Nepal. methods In April 2001, 97 male migrant-returnees and 40 non-migrants from five rural villages in Doti district where migration to Mumbai is common were recruited. For data collection, a serological examination for HIV and syphilis, and a perception and behaviour survey on HIV and other sexually transmitted infections was conducted. The results show that 11 of 137 men (8%) were positive for HIV infection and 30 men (22%) for syphilis. The respondents, especially the migrant-returnees from Mumbai, were engaging in risky behaviours such as pre- or extramarital sex, and sex with multiple partners, including sex workers. This study revealed high HIV and syphilis prevalence among the male migrant-returnees and non-migrants in far western Nepal where migration to Mumbai is common. The prevalent behaviours, particularly among the migrant-returnees, imply urgent needs of the behavioural modification programme in this area to prevent the spread of HIV infection to general population. -
Globalisation and Its Links to Migration and Trafficking: The Crisis in India, Nepal and Bangladesh
This article assesses the impact of globalisation on migration and the risks of being trafficked. The paper explores how South Asian countries, in particular India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, experience the rise of human trafficking amid complex changes brought about by globalisation. Driven by aspirations for better opportunities, people migrate to various places, and some get trafficked in the process. The paper warns that the effects of globalisation on migration and trafficking are likely to continue, and makes recommendations such as addressing gender equality, economic empowerment of women, collaborative border vigilance, promoting legal migration, and decriminalising women’s migration.
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