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Patterns in Foreign Employment and Vulnerability of Migrant Workers
This paper explores the relationship between labour migration and the risk of HIV infection. It is based on reviews of existing policies, legislation, and strategies related to foreign employment and HIV/AIDS prevention and control; interviews with relevant stakeholders including government officials, returnee migrant workers, human rights activists and recruitment agents; and the outcome of a workshop on pre-departure, post-arrival and re-integration of migrant workers. The study indicates that since a majority of foreign migrant workers are men living abroad without their spouses, they are likely to engage in sexual activities with other partners. This increases their vulnerability to STDs and HIV/AIDS which is further exacerbated by peer pressure and cultural taboos surrounding STIs. The author also indicates how women migrant workers become vulnerable to trafficking and HIV/AIDS because of their illegal or irregular channels of migration. While pointing towards the problems and prospects of foreign employment, the paper also provides recommendations for pre- and post-departure measures; re-integration experience of migrants; and policy and legal reforms. -
Nepal-India Open Border: Prospects, Problems and Challenges
This paper discusses the history, socio-economic implications, and challenges associated with the Nepal-India border and the movement of goods and people between the two countries. It recounts the history of mutual exchanges between Nepal and India in a chronological order, starting from the evolution and demarcation of the Nepali-Indian-Chinese borders to the treaties signed by the two governments. It argues that as is the case presently, throughout history too, there has been unrestricted movement between the two countries namely for trade, commerce, army recruitment, employment and refuge, among others. Both sides have faced myriad challenges linked to the open border, such as smuggling of illegal drugs, artefacts and arms, human trafficking and criminal activities. At the same time, however, the relationship between Nepal and India has strengthened through religious and cultural exchanges, agricultural and economic activities, and matrimonial ties that are facilitated by the open border. The author concludes by recommending more dialogue and research to address the challenges arising from the open border. -
Policies, Service Mechanisms and Issues of Nepali Migrant Women Workers
The paper analyses policies and instruments related to migration and their implications on Nepali women migrant workers. It acknowledges that a majority of Nepali women migrants are employed in the informal sector, mainly the domestic service sector and argues that the government’s restrictive policies on women’s migration not only limits women’s employment choices but also adversely affects the national and household economy, to which women migrants contribute. As a result of the protectionist policies against women, many women migrant workers opt to migrate through unofficial channels that increase their vulnerabilities to exploitation, both during the journey and at the destinations. The paper argues that the government and non-government actors must work towards bringing out policies that ensure safe migration and broaden women’s economic choices such that women become recognised as economic contributors and catalysts of social change. -
Foreign Employment for Women: Challenges and Opportunities
This book is a collection of articles published during a two-week joint media campaign organised by the United Nations Development Fund for Women and Sancharika Samuha to foster a positive environment that encourages and empowers women workers going for foreign employment. In the background of Nepal being a remittance-based economy, the articles emphasise the government’s role in creating a safe and secure foreign employment environment for Nepali women, given their role in contributing to 11 percent of the total inward remittances. To conclude, the book draws attention not only to the need for a sound government policy that facilitates the appropriate use of women returnees’ income, but also to the importance of implementing the existing government scheme that provides financial support to young people. -
Vulnerability to HIV/STIs among Rural Women from Migrant Communities in Nepal: A Health and Human Rights Framework
Human rights norms and standards can be applied to health issues as an analytical tool and as a framework to identify and shape interventions to reduce the impact of ill-health and improve the lives of individuals and populations. This article discusses how migration, health status, gender-based discrimination and access to education have an impact on HIV/STI vulnerability among rural women from migrant communities in Nepal. It is based on data from a clinic-based HIV/STI prevalence study with 900 women aged 15–49 from two rural communities in Kailali district, Western Nepal, and existing legal and policy data. Existing efforts to address HIV/STI vulnerability and risk in this population focus primarily on risk-taking behaviour and risk-generating situations, and largely fail to address contextual issues that create and facilitate risky behaviour and situations. Respecting, protecting and fulfilling the rights of individuals can reduce vulnerability to HIV/STI infection. Greater emphasis must be given to addressing the gender discrimination embedded in Nepalese culture, the acute lack of access to health care and education in rural areas, and the precarious economic, legal and social circumstances facing many migrants and their families. -
Transnational Activities for Local Survival: A Community of Nepalese Visa-Overstayers in Japan
Based on the concept of ‘transnationalism from below’, the paper examines transnational activities of a small group of Nepali immigrants who have overstayed their visas in Tokai, central Japan. It reveals how their cultural, economic, and political activities at the grassroots re-affirm their cultural identities as Nepalis and strengthen their group solidarity against shared injustice and vulnerabilities. This paper is based on research that was conducted over a period of six years in Kathmandu and Japan. While select returnees and undocumented workers in Japan were interviewed, the author also observed community affairs and participated in organised activities. The study highlights the importance of transnational activities in enabling immigrants to exercise their agency and governance in the backdrop of unbridled global capitalism. It finds Nepali transnationalism to be rooted in shared identity and social capital and Nepali-Japanese grassroots alliances to have created a shared space for immigrants and citizens to collaboratively counter global and local inequality. It also points to the existing inconsistencies in Japanese immigration policies and practices that draw illegal Asian workers to Japan. -
Migration and Spread of HIV/AIDS: A View from Medical Geography
As an investigation into the geography of disease or geographical pathology, this study examines the prevalence of HIV and patterns of diffusion among various populations. Notwithstanding the positive relationship between migration and the spread of disease, the author strongly argues against the assumption that identifies mobility as an independent risk factor and expresses his disapproval of the commonly held belief that deems HIV/AIDS to be a ‘foreign disease’ brought by migrant workers. Instead, he states that attitudes that place full blame on migrant workers for the spread of HIV/AIDS indicate a gap in fully understanding the realities of the migration processes that make migrant workers more prone to HIV/AIDS. The article suggests that in Nepal, HIV is most likely transmitted through spatial diffusion, mainly through sexual contact. Groups that are likely to act as transmission channels include HIV-infected female sex workers who return from India and continue sex work in Nepal, migrant labourers who stop at Badi establishments, and rural youths who migrate seasonally or temporarily to urban centres or foreign countries. The author stresses the growing significance of medical geography in understanding the complex relationship between humans, environment, and diseases and states that geographers, through the tools of medical geography, will be better able to identify factors that contribute to the prevalence of HIV/AIDS and pursue preventive measures. -
Community Perceptions of Trafficking and its Determinants in Nepal
The study aims to assess the vulnerability of girls and women to trafficking by identifying the perceptions, knowledge, and attitudes of community members and adolescent girls. It was conducted using both qualitative and quantitative research techniques in three districts of Nepal—Jhapa, Parsa, and Palpa. The study which included 1269 married and unmarried girls between 14 and 19 years, aimed to find out their aspirations, decision-making power and knowledge about migration, trafficking and HIV/AIDS. The study shows that women and girls aspire to study, explore, and experience life beyond their communities despite restrictions on mobility. It also reveals the negative perceptions in community on returnee trafficked women. The issue of migration and prostitution indicates that communities regard migration as an important livelihood strategy but fear that exposure to a new environment will spoil women’s ‘character’ and that it will ultimately lead them to sex trade. Based on these findings, the report indicates a need for community-based interventions that focus on explaining the difference between migration and trafficking; providing care and support to trafficked returnees; and addressing issues of gender-power discrimination. -
The Problem of Bhutanese Refugees and Comparison with Tibetan Refugees in Nepal
The paper presents a comparative analysis of the issues facing Bhutanese and Tibetan refugees. It provides an overview of the context in which the two refugee groups became displaced and describes their presence in Nepal in terms of attributes such as size, distribution, area of origin and level of economic success or failure. The paper posits how there are more differences than similarities between the two refugee groups. Even though the number of Bhutanese refugees far exceeds that of Tibetan refugees, their concerns are not as widely known outside of South Asia. Similarly, the economic success of Tibetan refugees, particularly through their involvement in carpet business and promotion, lies in stark contrast to the poor economic conditions of the Bhutanese refugees. The paper attributes the relatively more successful economic integration of Tibetan refugees and their global exposure to the international political climate and the involvement of communist China in the Tibetan refugee crisis; the comparatively smaller size of Tibetan refugees; and the favourable demography of the country. In contrast, Nepal’s approach in handling the concerns of Bhutanese refugees has differed as is evident in their adoption of a repatriation policy, especially since the 1990s, with Nepal undergoing rapid population growth and poverty. The paper also discusses how the optimism of going back to the homeland may be more ‘emotional’ than ‘real’ for particularly second and third generation Tibetan refugees, many of whom would prefer to live where they are. The author refers to this scenario as an indication of what the future might hold for Bhutanese refugees. -
Seasonal Migration in Western Nepal (Jumla)
The temporary or seasonal migration beyond national boundaries continues to supplement family incomes in the Nepalese hills. In Jumla district, seasonal migration is one of the means for acquiring the daily necessities to sustain village life. This paper explains seasonal migration from a single Hindu village, Bota, situated north of Jumla district. -
Nepal Living Standard Survey (NLSS I 1995/96): Volume II
The Nepal Living Standard Survey (NLSS) 1995/96 was the first survey conducted by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) of Nepal as a multi-topic survey collecting a comprehensive set of data on different aspects of household's welfare (consumption, income, housing, labor markets, education, health, etc.). The survey will allow the government to monitor the progress in improving national living standard and to evaluate the impact of various government policies and program on living condition of the population. -
Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS I 1995/96): Volume I
The Nepal Living Standard Survey (NLSS) 1995/96 was the first survey conducted by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) of Nepal as a multi-topic survey collecting a comprehensive set of data on different aspects of household's welfare (consumption, income, housing, labor markets, education, health, etc.). The survey will allow the government to monitor the progress in improving national living standard and to evaluate the impact of various government policies and program on living condition of the population. -
Thinking Through Nepal's Bhutan Problem
The paper draws attention to the severity of the issue of Bhutanese refugees in Nepal and describes possible ways that Nepal can adopt to address it. In the backdrop of the poor economic situation in Nepal, the paper argues that Nepal is not in a position to absorb the large influx of refugees. Moreover, Nepal is also not able to successfully repatriate them back to their home country, mainly because of King Jigme’s accusation of Nepal for providing shelter to ‘anti-regime Bhutanese’ or ‘anti-nationals’; the belief that the people are illegal migrants and not Bhutan government’s liability; and the disinterest of King Jigme in resolving this problem. The paper argues that the persistence of this crisis can result in severe political problems between the home country and host country, refugee groups and host country, and among refugee groups, and also trigger possibilities of refugee groups being used for terrorism. The author focuses on three ways to address this problem: direct leadership contact, active support of India, and regionalisation of this issue at the SAARC level. -
Economic Development through Indigenous Means: A Case of Indian Migration in the Nepal Tarai
By employing a historical approach, this paper seeks to examine the past as well as present socio-economic conditions in the Tarai of Nepal, with a special reference to the Indian migration into the area. It traces the migration of Indians into the Tarai after the unification when the Shah rulers encouraged Indians to settle in the Tarai regions of Nepal but were cautious of the entry of Indian traders for the fear that they would turn the Nepali subjects into ‘paupers’; the Rana rulers’ (1846-1951) deliberate policy of encouraging migration from India to maximise agricultural production and revenue from the land, cultivate birta and guthi land, and develop the Tarai by building market towns which would allow Nepal to benefit from the expansion of Indian railheads close to the border towns of Nepal. The article points out that as the Tarai emerged as Nepal’s granary and also the source of almost all the exportable surplus, the influx of hill migrants into the Tarai which until then had been regarded as a ‘Death Valley’, increased. Thus, by 1964, the government shifted its official policy to attract Indian settlers to discouraging their further settlement in the Tarai. In conclusion, the paper argues that while the migration of Indians into the Tarai led to ‘indigenous economic development’ in the sense that there was little need for planning or complex bureaucratic organisation or capital investment, the restriction of foreign nationals (i.e., Indians) since the 1960s has meant that it has become difficult to differentiate the immigrant Indians from the local Tarai people—an unforeseen ill-effect which is likely to be disruptive to Nepal’s future development. -
Internal and International Migration in Nepal: Summary and Recommendations
This report summarises the findings and recommendations of a pioneering field survey on migration in Nepal in 1983 that was conducted by a task force, which was constituted by the National Commission on Population. The survey was limited to urban areas of the Kathmandu Valley and ten sample districts of the Tarai. The report is divided into five parts. The first part provides an overview of migration in Nepal. The second illustrates the flow, source area, occupational pattern, cases, and impact of internal and international migration in the Kathmandu Valley. The third chapter reveals the magnitude, characteristics, causes, and consequences of internal and international migration in the Tarai in addition to describing the nature of international commuters in the region. The fourth presents a policy review of trade, industry, labour, international boundary and citizenship in relation to migration, specifically immigration. The last part provides a wide range of recommendations. Some of the adverse effects of internal migration to the Tarai include: deforestation and soil erosion in the Tarai and poor management of agricultural land, less intensive farming and shortage of agricultural labourers in the hills. Similarly, the report indicates how the unrestricted flow of immigrants through the Nepal-India open border, combined with the ineffective implementation of the vital registration programme and loopholes in the citizenship processing, have allowed a large number of immigrants to acquire Nepali citizenship in addition to their native citizenships. It also describes how the engagement of foreign traders in illegal trade, through capital flight and tax evasion, have not only displaced many local traders but also hampered the national economy, as a whole. In order to regulate the open border between Nepal and India, the report recommends the government to specify a limited number of entry and exit points on the basis of the bilateral agreement; implement mandatory registration procedures at specified border check points; issue multi-entry renewable permits to inhabitants residing within 10 km of the border and single-entry permits to other commuters; strengthen the border security police force in order to efficiently curb illegal trade and smuggling; and impose strict quotas on the import of luxurious, semi-luxurious and ‘sensitive’ foreign goods. -
Migration and Development: The Nepalese in Northeast
This short article analyses the historical context and process through which Nepalis, mainly from the central hill region, migrated to various frontiers, particularly, the northeast of India since the mid-19th century. The author highlights two key factors that influenced this trend: the economic and ecological crisis in the hills of Nepal, and the active recruitment of Nepalis by the British in its imperial army in India. He claims the economic and ecological crises to have risen from growing disintegration of land, indebtedness, mounting population pressure, lack of cultivable land, and chronic food deficit in the hill areas of central Nepal. The article claims how the Indo-Nepal Friendship Treaty of 1950, the Tripartite Delhi agreement of 1951, and the revised Indo-Nepal Agreement of 1956, only formalised a historical migratory trend that had already existed during the British period -
Nepalis in Tibet
The article begins by providing a historical background as well as experiences of Nepalis living in Tibet through six case studies that were conducted in 1974. It states how up until the 19th century, there were more Nepalis in Tibet than anywhere else in the world and more Tibetans in Nepal than people of Indian origin. This is attributed to the strong religious, cultural, and economic ties that existed between Nepal and Tibet then, which is evident in the many narratives that describe the frequent movement of Nepali monks, architects, traders, craftsmen, masons and builders to Tibet. However, after the 13th century, following the religious reform movement of Je Tsong Khapa, religious and cultural relations between the two countries waned and bilateral relations between the two countries became limited to mostly trade and commerce. The paper also distinguishes between Tibet-born Nepalis and Nepal-born Nepalis and their differential experiences in Tibet. For instance, since the Nepali traditional law of inheritance prohibited Tibet-born Nepalis from inheriting any property, the Tibet-born Nepalis were forced to opt for Chinese citizenship in 1960-1962. As a result, in the year 1974, the population of Nepalis in Tibet numbered 350, a figure which in 1920 was about 1600-1700 Nepalis, consisting of Newars and Nepalis with mixed parentage. Similarly, the operation of other Nepali institutions had also declined by 1974; while there was only one primary school for Nepali children in Lhasa, the dozen operative guthis had ceased to exist.
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